Encyclopedia

This interactive encyclopedia offers teachers and students access to terms, people, and events related to the history of Jim Crow. Many entries include reference material and some of the biographies on prominent figures contain suggestions for teaching as well as links to related sections of this site. The encyclopedia will continue to grow throughout the course of this project.

Talladega College: Talladega College was founded in 1867 under the patronage of the American Missionary Association (AMA) with the assistance of the Freedmen's Bureau for Refugees and Abandoned Lands. The Association purchased the brick building belonging to the Baptist Academy (a white school for the sons of wealthy planters), along with twenty acres of land in Talladega, Alabama. It started as little more than an elementary school in the middle of the so-called black belt of rural Alabama but gradually added secondary level courses. It granted its first bachelor's degree in 1895, and thereafter it emerged as one of the handful of quality colleges for blacks in the South. Its first class consisted of 140 students. By 1922, still only 123 students out of its total enrollment of 511 were in college classes. Ten years later, however, fully 50 percent were enrolled at the college level. From the beginning the college was noted for offering liberal arts education rather than just industrial or teacher training. In this, the college was similar to the other quality schools operated by the AMA--Fisk, Tougaloo, Straight (now Dillard), and Tillotson. Dedicated to offering students the opportunity to excel in the liberal arts, Talladega broke sharply with the Hampton/Tuskegee model of industrial education championed by Booker T. Washington. Today the college is predominantly African American and is affiliated with the United Church of Christ. Its enrollment is around 750 students and its emphasis remains focused on the Liberal Arts, Communication, Science, and Humanities. One of its most note-worthy features is the Amistad bas-relief set into the floor of the Slavery Library, and surrounded by three Hale Woodruff murals depicting the story of the rebellion of enslaved Africans on the Spanish slave ship, L'Amistad. It was in defense of the slaves, after the ship was captured by an American brig and towed into harbor off the coast of Long Island, that the AME was originally founded. The Slavery Library holds valuable archival materials on African-American churches and on missionary work in Africa.

Tampa, Florida: The Tocobaga tribe of the Timucuan confederation originally inhabited the area around Tampa Bay. One of the largest of nearly two-dozen settlements in the bay area was "Tanpa," or "sticks of fire," named after the lightning strikes common in the area. Later, mapmakers corrupted the name to Tampa. Numerous Spanish explorers visited Tampa Bay, starting with Juan Ponce de León in 1513 or 1521, followed by Panfilo de Narváez in 1528, and finally, Hernando de Soto in 1539. Although the Spanish sent missionaries to the area, the Tocobaga tribe declined, leaving behind only shell mounds and artifacts. Buccaneers, most famously José Gaspar, operated from the Bay in the 1700s and subsequently gave their name to the 2003 NFL Super Bowl champions. The Spanish invited Muskogee-speaking Upper Creeks from Alabama to settle Tampa Bay in 1767. This group, along with other Native American and slave refugees, helped to form the Seminole tribe.

In November 1823, the U.S. Army directed Col. George M. Brooke to establish a military post to help remove the Seminole from Florida. The Army erected Ft. Brooke the following year and administered Indian Agency food allotments to the Seminole from the fort. A trading post and community grew around the Fort. Fort Brooke remained occupied and active throughout the Second Seminole War (1835-1842). Following the end of the Seminole wars, the Tampa area prospered, first as a center of the cattle industry, and later as a center for citrus export and cigar manufacture.

Tania: Colocasia esculenta, coco yam; eddo in West Africa; Tanya in West Indies. Appears indigenous to Central Africa with two known varieties: "Old coco yam" (Colocaccia antiquorum) probably originated in the Congo basin, with its earliest citation being made by the Portuguese in the 15^th century; "Coco yam Tania" (Xanthosomaa sagitifolium) was a popular root plant in Sea Islands of Gerogia and South Carolina.

Tarry, Ellen: 1906: Ellen Tarry grew up in Birmingham and although raised in the Congregational Church she converted to Roman Catholicism in 1922. She attended Alabama State Normal School (Now Alabama State University) before teaching in the city of her youth. She wrote for the local black newspaper, authoring pieces on racial injustice and promoting racial pride in her column, "Negroes of Note." In 1929, she moved to New York City with the hopes of becoming a writer. She made the acquaintance of many of the writers of the Harlem Renaissance and published books for young people as well as articles for Catholic World and Commonwealth. Her children's literature avoided stereotypes, presented situations depicting interracial friendships, and emphasized the values of hard work and ingenuity in the role models sketched. Her autobiography explores the conflicts of class, gender color, and religious intolerance within the African-American community.

Taylor, Susie King: (1848-1912) Born a slave in Georgia, Susie King Taylor was allowed little opportunity to receive a formal education, although she did learn how to read and write from white children and literate slave women. As a young girl she defied slavery by fabricating passes for runaway slaves and taught black children how to read as best she could. In 1862, she moved to Port Royal Island where her husband joined the 1st South Carolina Volunteers, an all-black regiment. There she became the first black army nurse, even though she had little training, and served the regiment for four years. Her husband died at the end of the Civil War and she operated a private school and performed domestic work for three years before moving to Boston where she married Russell Taylor. During Reconstruction, she organized the Women's Relief Corps and promoted national recognition for African-American war heroes--men and women alike. In her published autobiography, Taylor analyzes race and gender relations and shows women being equal to men while performing traditional female duties such as sewing and nursing. Her fellow women are presented as valiant and hardy personalities fully equal to men. She also bluntly condemns the racism of Jim Crow, especial the activities of such groups as the Daughters of the Confederacy.

Taylor, Zachary: A veteran of the Second Seminole War and commander of the Army's Department of Florida from 1838 to 1840, Zachary Taylor is best remembered as the 12th President of the United States. He was born on November 24, 1784, in Montebello, Virginia; but he later moved to Kentucky. Taylor served in the Kentucky Militia (1806), and then was commissioned as a first lieutenant in the United States Army. During his 40-year long career as an army officer, Taylor fought in the War of 1812, the Black Hawk War (1832), the Second Seminole War, and the Mexican War. Nicknamed "Old Rough and Ready," the national hero was nominated by the Whig Party and elected president in 1848. The cession of territories won during the Mexican War ignited a national debate over slavery. Taylor wanted California to be admitted as a free state and threatened to hang any Southerner who tried to divide the nation. Taylor died on July 9, 1850, during the debate over the Compromise of 1850, which was adopted in September. In 1991, his body was exhumed to determine if he had been poisoned. Small traces of arsenic, considered non-lethal, were found in his remains, and the coroner ruled Taylor died of severe gastroenteritis.

Tennessee State University: In 1909 the State of Tennessee established four new colleges, three to serve the white communities of students and one for blacks. Tennessee State was founded in 1909 on 450-acres and began to accept students in 1912 as the Agricultural and Industrial State Teachers College for Negroes in Nashville. In 1922, this college was raised to a four year, fully-funded land grant college. The need in Tennessee for teachers was pressing. In 1930, it was noted that over 127,000 residents of the state over twenty-one years of age were illiterate, of which more than 57,250 were black. In 1927, TSU opened the first library building at any of the HBCU campuses. The Martha M. Brown Memorial Library was named after its first full-time librarian, a graduate of Fisk University and Hampton Institute. TSU was also one of those HBCU campuses in Tennessee that provided support to the 1959-1960 Nashville sit-ins and civil rights movements activities. Today TSU provides its 7,451 students, 78 percent of whom are African American, with a choice of forty-two baccalaureate degrees and twenty-two masters degrees, several doctoral level programs, and associate degree programs in nursing and dental hygiene. TSU offers a full-range of Division I and I-AA (football only) intercollegiate sports. Tennessee State University is the second largest black educational institution of higher learning in the world, the largest public land grant institution serving African Americans, and is comprised of five colleges and four schools.

Terrell, Mary Church: (1863-1954) Born in Memphis the daughter of slaves, Terrell became one of the most prominent members of the black elite in Washington, D. C. She attended Oberlin College and after graduation married Robert Terrell, a Washington lawyer who became a municipal judge. She became the first president of National Association of Colored Women in 1896. A strong supporter of the NAACP, her many publications attacked chain gangs, disfranchisement, lynching, and debt peonage. She participated in protest marches and sit-ins all the way into her eighties, and her 1940 autobiography, A Colored Woman in a White World, argued that black women had to deal with two disadvantages in the modern world--gender and race.

Texas College: Texas College is a historically African-American college founded in 1894 by a group of ministers affiliated with the Christian Methodist Episcopal church seeking the educational advancement of local African-American youth of eastern Texas, within a Christian context. Texas College is located in Tyler, Texas, and is a co-educational liberal arts college that grants thirteen baccalaureate degrees, in the liberal arts and humanities, and one associate degree in early childhood education. It is an independent college affiliated with the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church. Enrolling 264 students its first year, it currently maintains a faculty: student ratio of 1:8, and a present enrollment of 355 students. In the late nineteenth-century it was one of four colleges operated by the CME church. Notable graduates of Texas College include Mrs. Billie Aaron, wife of baseball slugger Hank Aaron and the two sisters to Mayor Willie Brown of San Francisco.

Texas Southern University: In February, 1946, Heman Marion Sweatt tried to enroll at the University of Texas Law School. Although he met the school's admission requirements, as a black man he was prohibited from registering. Under the Texas segregation laws of the day, no black person could be admitted to a white state institution. Since 1896 and Plessy v. Ferguson, the U.S. Supreme Court had mandated that all states must provide separate but equal educational facilities for their black and white citizens. Texas, however, had never created a law school for blacks, thereby denying Sweatt equal opportunity under the Fourteenth Amendment. Sweatt filed suit against the university. Aware of the damage and publicity Sweatt's suit would arouse nationally, the Texas Legislature scrambled to establish a black law school. The state bought Houston Junior College for Negroes for $2,000,000, and hastily attached to it a number of professional schools, including a law school. Houston Junior College had been established in 1827, and had existed as a normal school for black students. After the state acquired Houston College in March 1947, it was recast as a full state-supported institution of higher education for blacks and renamed Texas State University for Negroes. But it was too little, too late, for the state of Texas. Sweatt, represented by NAACP attorney Thurgood Marshall, refused to attend the new law school contending that it was not equal to University of Texas's all white law school. Although the intention of Sweat's suit was not to create an all black university but rather to integrate the existing one, Texas State enrolled 2,303 students in its first year. Sweat's suit, meanwhile, found its way to the United states Supreme Court where in 1950 the Court declared that the black school was inferior to the white and that the state must integrate its law school. The Sweatt case proved to be one a significant step toward the later 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision that effectively eliminated school segregation. The Brown decision also temporarily undermined the existence of the black university, and Texas State struggled for a period of years. A name change to Texas Southern University in 1951 was made to dispel the image of inferiority of the black school. Today, Texas Southern enrolls over 7,000 students in seven colleges and schools on a 145-acre campus. In 1973 the Texas Legislature named Texas Southern a "special purpose institution for urban planning."

Tharpe, Sister Rosetta: (1915-1973) Born in Cotton Plant, Arkansas, Tharpe became an active singer of gospel-folk in the 1930s and 1940s. She performed with many great artists of her day, including Cab Calloway and Lucky Millinder.

The Souls of Black Folk: [1903] The third book written by black intellectual W.E.B. Du Bois, it is a collection of hauntingly beautiful essays on every important aspect of black culture in the South. The book argues that blacks live with a "double consciousness,' or veils of identity, one black, one American. It effectively describes the magnitude of American racism, drawing most of the essays from his life experiences. It secured Du Bois' preeminence among all African American intellectuals and positioned him to become the leader of those opposed to the accommodationist methods of Booker T. Washington.

Thirteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution: Ratified by twenty-seven states and proclaimed in effect on December 18, 1865, this amendment abolished slavery. It was necessary because the Emancipation Proclamation freed slaves only in those states within the Confederacy.

Thompson, Era Bell: (1906-1986) Growing up on a rural North Dakota farm, Era Bell Thompson had limited contact with other African Americans until she reached adulthood. She attended North Dakota State University before moving to Chicago. She again returned to North Dakota and eventually received her degree from Dawn College in Iowa before moving back to Chicago once more and studying journalism at Northwestern University. She then began her formal literary career and received many awards for her writing. While working as a typist at Northwestern University, she produced the humorous newspaper Giggle Sheet and later wrote, in 1946, her autobiography, which launched her on her literary career. She became an editor for the Negro Digest and Ebony magazine, serving in the later capacity from 1964 to 1986 as its international editor. Her book, Africa: Land of My Fathers, recounts her frustrated attempts to comprehend here ancestral heritage, and many of her later essays denounce men's treatment of women regardless of race and class.

Three-Fifths Clause of the Constitution: This clause in the Constitution greatly strengthened the political power of slaveholders by allowing slaves to be counted for representation in the House of Representatives. Slaves were counted as three-fifths of a free person for representation in the House and the Electoral College and also for the purposes of taxation. For the next 50 years, this clause enabled the slaveholding South to dominate the U. S. government even while its population failed to keep pace with the North's population. The provision that the enslaved population could be counted for the tax base was never implemented because Congress rarely enacted direct taxes until the Civil War.

Tillman, Katherine Davis Chapman: (1870-?) Katherine Tillman began writing as a child and had her first poem published at eighteen. She attended the State University of Louisville and Wilberforce University, and married Rev. G.M. Tillman. She continued writing throughout the Reconstruction era, especially for AME Church publications. Much of her writing explores the roles open to black women in a racist and male dominated society as well as the possibilities for self-definition as women.

Tougaloo College: Founded by the American Missionary Association in 1869 on a five-hundred acre plantation on the northern edge of Jackson, Mississippi, Tougaloo College has grown into an institution of one thousand African-American students. Today it is best known for its exchange program with Brown University, its active part in the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s, and its Civil Rights Collection. Tougaloo College was granted its initial charter from the State of Mississippi in 1871, recognized as a teacher training school in 1892, and offered its first collegiate level courses in 1897. In 1875, the Disciples of Christ founded the nearby Southern Christian Institute, which combined with Tougaloo College in 1954. Supported by the state of Mississippi during the Reconstruction era as a teachers college, Tougaloo lost all state support after 1880. In 1932, the college had a total enrollment of 183 students, 140 of which were at the college level. Tougaloo College remains a private, African-American, co-educational, liberal arts college. Half of its students major in psychology, education, economics, or the life sciences. Seventy percent of Tougaloo College's graduates go on to further academic studies.

Triangular Trade: The trade by North Americans and Europeans with Africa for slaves resembled a triangle on the map of the Atlantic Ocean. In its simplest form, Europeans sent trading ships to African for slaves which were then shipped to the Americas in exchange for sugar and tobacco. European slave captains carried cargoes of wool or cotton materials, rum, brandy, iron bars, knives, axes, firearms, gunpowder, and glass beads to Africa. These European goods were exchanged for slaves, which were then shipped to South and Central America, the West Indies, and to North American ports such as Newport, Boston, New York, and Charleston, to be exchanged for cash, sugar, coffee, tobacco, gold, and timber for sailing masts. With their holds filled with these Central, South, and North American products, the European ships then sailed for their homeports. American slavers also participated in this triangular trade, crossing the Atlantic with fish, whale oil, candles, timber, and especially rum to exchange for slaves in Africa, which they took to the West Indies in exchange for molasses. After trading their slaves, these American ships then voyaged home with supplies to make into more rum. Some of these ships brought enslaved Africans directly to North American ports, especially New York, Boston, and Newport, after which the captives were sold to coastal slavers who carried their cargos to coastal ports from Charleston to New Orleans. The first known American slave-trading venture occurred in 1643 when a New England vessel carried fish to Spain, taking payment in African slaves, which were subsequently sold in the West Indies.

Trotter, William Monroe: (1872-1934) Editor of the Boston Guardian (founded in 1901), Trotter was a scathing opponent of Booker T. Washington's accommodationist stand on segregation. He managed to attend the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 as a delegate of the National Equal Rights League but his appeal for a proviso outlawing discrimination in the Covenant of the League of Nations was opposed by President Woodrow Wilson.

Truth, Sojourner: (1797-1883) Born a slave, Sojourner Truth (whose given name was Isabella Baumfree) was the eleventh of twelve children who were sold and scattered by their master. As a fourteen year old, Isabella married Thomas, another slave, and bore five children, two of whom were sold away from her. In 1826, the year before New York outlawed slavery, Isabella fled her owner and lived as a domestic with a deeply religious family, the Van Wegenens, devotees of Millerite Second Adventism. Taking their name, Isabella Van Wegenen began her own religious journey following an epiphany in which she believed Jesus interceded for her protection. Shortly after this event she moved to New York City and took up residence with Elijah and Sarah Pierson, evangelists committed to saving prostitutes of the notorious "Five Points" area. With the Piersons, Isabella joined a fringe religious group called Kingdom of Matthias. The group lived communally near Ossining, New York for two years until it disbanded under a cloud of scandal.

In 1843, Isabella set out to deliver her message of love, brotherhood, and temperance. Renaming herself Sojourner Truth, she traveled on foot through Long Island and Connecticut, preaching to whoever would listen. A gifted and powerful speaker, the charismatic Truth soon acquired a following. In the fall of 1843 she arrived in Northampton, Massachusetts and lived in a utopian community dedicated to abolition and women's rights. At Northampton she became acquainted with William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, and feminist Olive Gilbert. Inspired by her story, Gilbert penned Truth's autobiography Narrative of Sojourner Truth and published it in 1850. (Truth herself could neither read nor write.)

Equipped with a national reputation, Truth attended the Akron, Ohio Women's Convention in 1851. Here she delivered her famous "Ain't I a Woman?" speech. Contemporaneous accounts of the speech describe her speech as forceful, but Frances Dane George's transcription of the speech published 12 years later in 1863 generated much more excitement. Coupled with an essay written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, Truth's words elevated her to a national symbol for both the abolitionist and feminist causes. Using her fame as currency, Truth traveled widely, impressing audiences with her singing, preaching, and fervent advocacy of racial and gender equality.

During the Civil War, Truth raised money for African-American Volunteer regiments and continued to travel and lecture. She moved to Washington D.C. where she joined the National Freedmen's Relief Association and worked with the hundreds of newly freed slaves crowding into the city. She became the nation's first freedom rider when she took legal action against a conductor who injured her while throwing her off a segregated streetcar. Truth opposed ratification of the 15th Amendment granting freedmen the vote on the grounds that it excluded women. In 1875, Truth moved to Battle Creek, Michigan to live with Spiritualist Quakers. She remained there until her death on November 26, 1883.

Tubman, Harriet: "...The slaves call her Moses," wrote abolitionist Thomas Wentworth Higginson in 1859. Higginson was referring to Harriet Tubman, a slight, undistinguished, rather fragile looking woman who led 300 slaves to freedom on the Underground Railroad between 1849 and 1860.

Born Araminta Ross to "Old Rit" or Harriet and Benjamin Ross (she later adopted her mother's name), Harriet Tubman's early life as a slave on Edward Broder's Maryland plantation, was one of interminable back-breaking labor. One of eleven children, the young Harriet worked as a field hand, having little aptitude for indoor labor. At the age of 15, Tubman's master, intending to hit another slave who was trying to run away, hit Tubman in the head with a rock causing severe injury. Although she recovered, Tubman struggled with bouts of narcolepsy and seizures the rest of her life. In 1844, she married John Tubman, a man unsympathetic to Tubman's growing hatred of bondage. When Tubman got word in 1849 that she was to be sold, she resolved to escape, leaving her husband (who had threatened to betray her) and family behind. Hiding under a layer of vegetables in a wagon and with the North Star as her only guide, Tubman made her way to Philadelphia about 130 miles away. Once in Philadelphia she discovered the Philadelphia Vigilance committee, a group assisting fugitive slaves. She became acquainted with a number of influential abolitionists such as Thomas Garrett and William Still who had been running the Underground Railroad through Philadelphia since the early 1840s and who became early supporters of Tubman's cause to free her people. The railroad was actually a highly organized network of safe houses, people, and vehicles that ferried run-away slaves out of the south and into the safety of the north.

In 1850, however, with the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law, the northern states were no longer safe havens and the railroad extended into Canada, Mexico, and Florida for passage to the Caribbean Islands. Until the outbreak of the Civil War, Tubman returned to Maryland 19 times to lead slaves out of bondage, including her parents and siblings. Typically, she took charges from Maryland, through Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New York to St. Catherines, Ontario, Canada a distance of 650 grueling danger-ridden miles. Tubman led her expeditions with an iron hand and a six-shooter, threatening to shoot anyone who surrendered or defected. She never had to. So successful was Tubman that a reward of $40,000 was offered for her capture.

By the time the Civil War began, Tubman's name and reputation for fearlessness and intelligence had spread. The Union Army enlisted her to help nurse sick and wounded soldiers at Beaufort, South Carolina. She recruited over 500 freedmen to the Union Army and served as a spy in the Combahee River expedition finding Confederate torpedoes, destroying bridges and cutting off supply routes. After the war, the United States government denied her a military pension because she had no formal position and because she was a woman.

After the war Tubman lived in Auburn, New York a progressive community where her parents then resided. Her neighbor, New York Governor William Seward, helped her with the purchase of a house. Always close to poverty, in 1869 Tubman collaborated with writer Sarah Bradford (Tubman herself was illiterate) on a book Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman the proceeds from which she used build a home for the aged and indigent. Twelve miles from Seneca Falls, Tubman involved herself in the woman's suffrage movement and established a close relationship with Susan B. Anthony. In 1913, Harriet Tubman died of pneumonia in the residence for the aged she had built.

Turner, Henry McNeal: (1834-1915) Born a free person, Turner's life ranged broadly from plantation laborer, porter, U. S. Army chaplain, political organizer during Reconstruction, college chancellor, editor, teacher, black nationalist, and bishop in the African Methodist Episcopal (A.M.E.) church. An avid political organizer, Turner had little faith in the ability of white America to embrace equality and justice for black Americans. After winning election to the Georgia legislature, he was expelled illegally in 1868 and reprimanded by the Republican Party in the state for organizing African Americans to be members both of the A.M.E. Church and the Republican Party. As manager of the A.M.E. Book Concern, Turner voiced his criticism of the sharecropping system then prevalent in the rural South; and once appointed a Bishop in the Church in 1890, he advocated emigration as the only alternative to white racism and black impoverishment. As editor of the A.M.E. publication Voice of Missions, Turner became the leading spokesperson calling for reparations to ex-slaves, a black-owned steamship company to transport African Americans to Africa, and a sophisticated plan for the full-scale modernization of Africa under the leadership of migrating African Americans. His energy and passion continued the long-standing criticism of American and European racism and its links to colonialism. Much of what he said served as underpinning to the Black Nationalist movements of the 1920s and the 1960s.

Tuskegee University: Tuskegee University is considered to be the preeminent historically black university (and) the flagship of African-American higher education movement. Founded in 1881 in Tuskegee, Alabama, it is most closely associated with Booker T. Washington and its scientist George Washington Carver. Booker T. Washington, a graduate of Hampton Institute and Normal College, and a follower of Hampton's industrial and teacher education model, ushered Tuskegee from a small rural school to the most endowed black college in the nation--supported largely by white, northern philanthropists. The school had a student body of 30 in 1881 and 1,338 in 1915. Today nearly 4000 students are enrolled in the college. The Tuskegee model emphasized educating elementary and secondary students in industrial education and the so-called practical arts. This program generated great debate in the African-American community and was strongly opposed by the majority of black educators in the nation. But Washington's ability to raise funds made him the most powerful educator in the nation. In 1915, Dr. Booker T. Washington died and was buried near the chapel on the campus. In 1922, a memorial to Dr. Washington created by Charles Keck was unveiled in front of nearly 100,000 people. In the 1930s, the school reformed its curriculum and greatly de-emphasized its practical arts, focusing its resources on the liberal arts and advanced studies. From 1937 until 1985, Washington's college was known as the Tuskegee Institute. Among the more famous groups associated with the college are the Tuskegee Airmen, a black military pilot-training program set up by the federal government during World War Two at Tuskegee Institute. More notorious was the forty-year-long study of untreated syphilis in black males conducted by the Institute and the U. S. Public Health Service. The study involved 600 males who were allowed to suffer without penicillin treatment until the study was halted in 1972. In 1997, President Bill Clinton formally apologized to the survivors and their families, and the federal government has paid over $10 million in compensation to them. Among the graduates of Tuskegee are Ralph Ellison, the author of The Invisible Man, and General Daniel Chappie James, America's first four-star African-American general. Today, Tuskegee University, comprised of 5,000 acres of land, is home to 3,000 students, and produces 75 percent of all African-American veterinarians in the world. They offer a full range of baccalaureate degrees, masters degrees, and doctoral programs.